The business climate in Peru is generally attractive. Foreign trade has been extensively deregulated in recent years, state interference in free trade is minimal and the present government is continuing many of the business-friendly policies of previous governments. The country has a liberal foreign investment regime, and the 1993 Constitution guarantees foreign investors the same treatment as nationals. Business executives surveyed in the World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013 , cite corruption as the second-most problematic factor for doing business in Peru behind an inefficient government bureaucracy. According to the report, companies consider the occurrence of irregular payments and bribes in Peru as common. Companies also identify the favouritism of government officials in rewarding contracts to well-connected companies and individuals, and the ethical behaviour of companies operating in Peru as significant competitive disadvantages. In contrast, according to Transparency International's Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 , the private sector is perceived as less corrupt than other sectors in the country and is given a score of 2.9 on a 5-point scale (1 'not at all corrupt' and 5 'extremely corrupt'). The difficulties that companies experience when trying to deal with Peru's extensive bureaucracy has led some companies to make use of facilitation payments or to contract local agents who they hope can expedite business transactions. However, since companies can be held accountable for corrupt behaviour performed by agents on their behalf, they are advised to conduct extensive due diligence on business partners and agents when investing in or already doing business in Peru.

According to the World Bank & IFC Enterprise Surveys 2010 , 44.5% of the companies surveyed identify corruption as a major constraint for doing business, while 12.4% report that they are expected to give gifts in order to obtain an operating licence and 26.3% report that they are expected to give gifts to secure a government contract. There are also indications of widespread demands for facilitation payments, as more than 21% of companies expect to give gifts to public officials to 'get things done'. New and small companies are more likely to be asked for bribes than established or larger companies. Bribes are also commonly used by companies when dealing with the judiciary in order to speed up and facilitate judicial proceedings.

According to Bertelsmann Foundation 2012 , several obstacles such as bureaucratic corruption have hampered growth of the private sector in Peru. Companies should be aware of government procurement processes and that the judicial sectors are susceptible to corruption. According to the US Department of State 2011 , private sector groups have increased efforts to fight corruption through Proética , the national chapter of Transparency International in Peru. Companies are generally recommended to use a specialised public procurement due diligence tool in order to mitigate the corruption risks associated with public procurement in Peru.

Although the regulatory environment in Peru has improved in recent years due to a reduction in barriers to trade, faster customs procedures and improved dispute settlement processes, many foreign companies still cite regulatory issues as constraints for their business operations in Peru. Business executives surveyed in The World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013 perceive inefficient government bureaucracy to be the most problematic factor for doing business in Peru, closely followed by corruption. Moreover, business executives also report that government policy-making is somewhat opaque and that government officials usually favour well-connected companies and individuals when deciding on policies and contracts. Commercial regulations can be sometimes inconsistent, and the lack of transparency may increase start-up and overall operational costs. In a similar vein, in Transparency International's Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 , more than 38% of Peruvian households perceive public officials to be 'extremely corrupt'.

According to the World Bank & IFC Doing Business 2013 , a company must go through 5 procedures taking an average of 26 days at a cost of nearly 11% of GNI per capita to start a company in Peru. The public institutions granting relevant business licences suffer from widespread corruption and a deficiency in the rule of law, and according to the US Department of State 2009 , companies continue to complain about excessive red tape and confusion about which licences they need and where to obtain them. One initiative to improve this situation is the private investment agency ProInversion , established as a 'one-stop shop' advisory agency for current and potential investors. ProInversion has successfully completed both concessions and privatisations of state-owned enterprises and natural resources. Foreign investors are advised to register with ProInversion in order to obtain a guarantee that they will be able to repatriate capital, profits and royalties. In December 2012, the European Parliament approved the EU-Central America Association Agreement , paving the way for the creation of a free-trade agreement between the EU and Peru. It is hoped that the agreement will result in a more stable and predictable environment for companies and the formation of a mediation mechanism to settle bilateral disputes.

Intellectual property rights are protected in Peru within a legal framework which is consistent with international standards. According to the Bertelsmann Foundation 2012 , property rights are also properly defined and protected by law, with the exception of areas inhabited by the indigenous population, where they are not clearly defined. However, according to the US Department of State 2011 , legal enforcement is problematic as the judicial system is often very slow to hear cases and court decisions have been difficult to predict and enforce. The competence of individual judges is said to vary substantially, and allegations of corruption and outside interference in the courts are common. The Peruvian appeals process also tends to delay the resolution of cases. Thus, foreign investors have found that contracts are often difficult to enforce in Peru. However, the Peruvian government has taken steps to improve dispute settlement procedures. Between 2004 and 2007, 24 commercial courts were established, with the purpose of ruling on investment disputes, including two courts of appeal, which have substantially improved the process of resolving commercial disputes. The amount of time required to resolve a case has, on average, been reduced from two years to two months, and the enforcement of court decisions has been reduced from 36 months to 3-6 months. Several private organisations operate their own arbitration centres, such as the Universidad Católica, the Lima Chamber of Commerce and the US Chamber of Commerce . Peru has also been a full member of the International Centre for Settlement of Investments Disputes (ICSID) since 1993 and of the New York Convention of 1958 since 1988. Access the Lexadin World Law Guide for a collection of legislation in Peru .

Individual Corruption

The Peruvian judicial system is tainted with corruption and official pressure, according to the US Department of State 2011 . Similarly, Transparency International's Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 points out that the judiciary is among the most corrupt public institutions in Peru. According to the report, well over half of the surveyed households consider it as 'extremely corrupt', while more than a quarter reports having paid a bribe in 2009. Also, in the Proética Seventh National Survey on Corruption 2012 , the surveyed citizens consider the judiciary to be among the most corrupt institutions in Peru. User surveys also indicate that unofficial payments affect both the speed and the final outcome of judicial processes.

Business Corruption

According to World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013 , surveyed business executives have a low degree of confidence in the Peruvian legal system. In general, business executives do not consider the legal framework for settling disputes and for challenging regulation to be efficient. Companies should be aware that the corrupt and inefficient judiciary poses a hindrance for settling commercial disputes in Peru. This is supported by the US Department of State 2013 , which has found that contracts are often difficult to enforce because the judicial system is very slow to hear cases and to issue decisions. Outcomes have been difficult to predict and enforce, and judicial corruption is allegedly frequent. Thus, according to the report, foreign companies have encountered problems directly resulting from corruption in the judicial sector. Given these reasons, foreign investors often resort to arbitration to resolve business disputes, in order to avoid time-consuming judicial procedures.

Political Corruption

According to the US Department of State 2011 , although the law provides for an independent judiciary, in practice, judges do not function independently of the executive branch. Also, Freedom House 2012 reveals that the executive does not guarantee the independence of the judiciary. The Bertelsmann Foundation 2012 states that reforms intended to strengthen the independence of the judiciary have been unsuccessful, mainly due to the unwillingness of policymakers and the judiciary's lack of interest.

The Peruvian judiciary inherited a legacy from the Fujimori era of a discredited reputation and vulnerability to political and economic influences. The presence of corrupt judges remains a serious problem. During 2011, at least 43 judges, some of them high-profile, were dismissed as unsuitable or corrupt, according to Freedom House 2012.

A corruption scandal came to light in 2010, leading to the suspension of a selection process meant to fill vacant positions in the Supreme Prosecutors Office. According to a Peruvian Times 2010 news article, a member from the selection committee offered to support one of the candidates if the candidate provided 'economic incentives' in return. According to a 2010 statement made by the National Magistrates Council (CNM), the committee member resigned from his position as a consequence of the scandal.

In August 2010, the Judicial Defence Council sent a report to the Prosecutor's Office, the Office of Magisterial Oversight, and the Supreme Court, in which it revealed a corruption network in the judiciary and named 116 magistrates, who were allegedly linked to narcotics trafficking. In response to this report, the Magisterial Oversight Office investigated and suspended some judges, according to the US Department of State 2010 .

Frequency

The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2013 :
- Enforcing a commercial contract in Peru requires a company to go through an average of 41 administrative procedures, taking an average of 428 days and costing an average of 35.7% of the claim.

Miller & Chevalier: Latin America Corruption Survey 2012 :
- 60% of the business leaders surveyed believe the judiciary to be significantly corrupt.

Proética: Seventh National Survey on Corruption 2012 (in Spanish):
- 88% of the households surveyed perceive the judiciary to be corrupt or extremely corrupt, making it the most corrupt institution in Peru.

- 65% of users of the courts report that processes within the judicial system (e.g. trial, extension of licences and permits, etc.) are faster when a bribe is paid to the judicial personnel.

World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013 :
- Business executives give the judiciary's level of independence from influences of members of government, citizens, or companies a score of 2.5 on a 7-point scale (1 'heavily influenced' and 7 'entirely independent').

- Business executives give the efficiency of the legal framework for private companies to settle disputes and to challenge the legality of government actions and/or regulations a score of 3 and 3.1 respectively on a 7-point scale (1 'extremely inefficient' and 7 'highly efficient').

Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 :
- Citizens give the judiciary a score of 4.4 on a 5-point scale (1 'not at all corrupt' and 5 'extremely corrupt').

- 83% of households surveyed consider the judiciary to be corrupt or extremely corrupt.

- 29% of households who had contact with the judiciary in 2010 reported to having paid a bribe.

Latinobarómetro: Annual Report 2008 (see English version):
- 47% of respondents in this public opinion survey believe that it is possible to bribe a judge in order to get a favourable sentence.

Individual Corruption

According to the Bertelsmann Foundation 2012 , the National Police Force is the subject of severe corruption cases. The high perception of corruption is also illustrated in Transparency International's Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 , according to which, the Peruvian police are perceived to be among the most corrupt public institutions in the country, with over a third of the surveyed households considering the police as 'extremely corrupt'. Also, the household survey Latinobarómetro 2008 (see English version) indicates that fines and arrests can often be prevented by paying a bribe to a police officer.

Furthermore, according to the USAID Peru Threshold Program 2008 , corruption is widespread in the police force, and because the police have the most contact with the citizens compared to other public officials, it has largely reduced the citizens’ trust in the state.

Citizens surveyed in the Proética Seventh National Survey on Corruption 2012 , rank the police as the second-most corrupt institution in Peru.

Business Corruption

Companies considering operations in Peru should note that the national police suffer from corruption. According to Miller & Chevalier Latin America Corruption Survey 2012 , nearly all the surveyed companies believe that the police in Peru are significantly corrupt.

There are reports of police officers involved in delinquency, kidnapping and drug trafficking. Even though there is a General Office of Complaints (in Spanish), the office is seldom used because of lack of confidence in its ability to investigate and sanction the crimes committed within the police. Similarly, the World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013 reveals that companies find that Peru performs poorly in relation to the reliability of police services to protect them from crime. This is corroborated by the World Bank & IFC Enterprise Surveys 2010 , which reveals that the majority of the surveyed companies pay for security in Peru, while a smaller part identifies crime, theft and disorder as major constraints to doing business in the country.

Political Corruption

According to Global Integrity 2010 , appointments to law enforcement agencies are sometimes based on non-professional criteria, and party loyalties may be considered in some cases. Furthermore, in practice the law enforcement agencies are not protected from the interference of the executive. Also, the report highlights that law enforcement officers may sometimes enjoy protection from criminal investigations.

In October 2011, President Ollanta Humala dismissed two-thirds of the generals in the country's national police force, the most powerful move yet in an anti-corruption drive which he announced shortly after taking office in July 2011. The move included the dismissal of 30 of the 45 generals in the police force, including its director, General Raul Becerra, according to a 2011 article by The New York Times .

Frequency

Miller & Chevalier: Latin America Corruption Survey 2012 :
- 89% of the business leaders surveyed believe that the police exhibit 'significant' corruption.

Proética: Seventh National Survey on Corruption 2012 (in Spanish):
- 88% of the households surveyed perceive the police to be 'corrupt' or 'very corrupt'.

World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013 :
- Business executives give the reliability of the Peruvian police services to enforce law and order a score of 3.0 on a 7-point scale (1 'cannot be relied upon at all' and 7 'can always be relied upon').

Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 :
- 35.8% of households surveyed consider the police to be 'extremely corrupt'.

- 33% of households who had contact with the police in 2010 report having paid a bribe.

- On average, citizens give the police a score of 3.9 on a 5-point scale (1 'not at all corrupt' and 5 'extremely corrupt').

The World Bank & IFC: Enterprise Surveys 2010 :
- More than 77% of the surveyed companies pay for security in Peru.

- Over 27% of companies surveyed identify crime, theft and disorder as a major constraint on doing business in Peru.

Latinobarómetro: Annual Report 2008 (see English version):
- 58% of the respondents in this public opinion survey believe that it is possible to bribe a police official to avoid a fine or arrest.

Individual Corruption

Many citizens identify the process of obtaining licences and permits as widely corrupt, as illustrated by Transparency International's Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 . Citizens frequently report either offering or being compelled to pay a bribe in connection with obtaining various permits and licences. Citizens also perceive corruption in relation to getting utilities connected and repaired as not uncommon. Furthermore, the Peruvian health system is also affected by corruption. Also, the education system is considered by the households to be not free from corruption.

Business Corruption

According to the business executives surveyed in the World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013 , inefficient government bureaucracy is among the most problematic factors for doing business in Peru, only preceded by corruption. Companies should note that it is common for local officials to demand bribes in exchange for expediting paperwork in connection with the issuing of licences.

Another site for corrupt practices is the business inspections conducted by government officials. Thus, Global Integrity 2010 , reports that, in practice, business inspections by government officials to ensure public health standards may sometimes be carried out in an arbitrary and ad-hoc manner, and bribes are sometimes paid by companies in return for favourable treatment or expedited processing.

Political Corruption

The former mayor of Lima, Luis Castañeda is under investigation over a USD 13.8 million payment to a waste-management company, according to a November 2012 article in The Economist . Castañeda has instigated a recall referendum against the current mayor and there are allegations by the main anti-corruption prosecutor in Lima that Castañeda is using the recall to obstruct the corruption investigation.

According to a 2010 news article by Peruvian Times , the president of the state water utility company, Sedapal, resigned due to allegations of corruption. He was accused of awarding a USD 4.5 million contract to TFKC Reprex over two projects in San Bartolo in December 2008, with the latter being a newly established company with a total capital of less than USD 1,050 when the contract was awarded.

In November 2011, Vice President Omar Chehade was suspended from the Congress by the Ethics Committee over corruption allegations. Chehade was one of Peru's two vice presidents and had consistently refused calls by incumbent President Ollanta Humala to step down; he finally did so in January 2012. According to a November 2011 article by MercoPress , Chehade was accused of illegal lobbying, namely, asking a police general to help his brother evict workers from a cooperative sugar farm to help a company that wanted to take over. Chehade returned to parliament following a 120-day suspension, according to a May 2012 RPP article.

Frequency

The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2013 :
- Starting a company requires the entrepreneur to go through 5 administrative steps, taking 26 days at a cost of nearly 10.6% of GNI per capita.

- Building a warehouse in Peru requires a company to go through 14 administrative steps, takes an average of 173 days at a cost of 62.8% of income per capita.

World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013 :
- Business executives give government administrative requirements (permits, regulations, reporting) in Peru a score of 2.7 on a 7-point scale (1 'extremely burdensome' and 7 'not burdensome at all').

Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010 :
- Nearly 11% of households who had contact with registry and permit services in 2009 report to have paid a bribe.

- More than 6% of households who had contact with the education system in 2009 report to have paid a bribe.

- 4.4% of households who had contact with medical services in 2009 report to have paid a bribe.

- Under 4% of households who had contact with the utilities services in 2009 report to having paid a bribe.

- 38.6% of households surveyed consider public officials to be 'extremely corrupt'.

The World Bank & IFC: Enterprise Surveys 2010 :
- 12.3% of companies expect to give gifts in order to obtain an operating licence.

- 20.4% of the companies surveyed expect to give gifts to get a construction permit.

- 1.2% of companies expect to give gifts in order to get an electrical connection, 4.5% for a telephone connection and 4.1% for a water connection.

Individual Corruption

According to Transparency International's Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 , only a small amount of Peruvian households point to the interaction with land authorities as an area where bribes are often demanded.

Business Corruption

Companies should note that even though property rights are relatively well-defined, problems still exist with regard to the acquisition, use, benefits, and sale of property. The Bertelsmann Foundation 2012 reports that property rights are not adequately protected in practice because the judicial and administrative systems are flawed. This occurs particularly often in some rural areas where property rights can be unclear and land title confusion is common. The judicial system is often very slow to hear cases and to issue decisions in property rights cases. Outcomes of court rulings and the degree of enforcement are difficult to predict, and corruption is allegedly frequent. According to Freedom House 2011 , property rights are semi-predictable in Peru. Laws safeguarding indigenous territories are considered fairly strong, but these lands can be bought and sold, and loopholes in the land regulations continue to exist.

The US Department of State 2012 reports that logging, petroleum and mining companies have experienced special problems in rural areas inhabited by Indigenous people where land titles are contested. This has created recurring conflicts between Indigenous populations, the government and the companies involved.

Frequency

The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2013 :
- On average, it takes 4 procedures and 7 days to register property, and the cost amounts to 3.3% of the property value.

World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013 :
- Business executives give the protection of property rights in Peru, including financial assets, a score of 3.8 on a 7-point scale (1 'very weak' and 7 'very strong').

Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 :
- 3.8% of the households surveyed reported to have paid a bribe to land services in 2010.

Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2009 :
- 57% of households consider grand or political corruption in land matters to be a 'very serious problem'.

- 83% of respondents consider bribes to land authorities to obtain favourable decisions a 'very serious problem' in Peru.

Individual Corruption

According to Freedom House 2011 , the national tax agency, National Superintendence of Tax Administration , is generally viewed by Peruvians as having increased in efficiency and transparency, and tax collection has both improved and achieved a broader base in recent years. This could explain why only a small part of the surveyed households in Transparency International's Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 report having paid a bribe to tax officers the previous year.

Business Corruption

According to the World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013 , tax regulations are considered among the most problematic factors for conducting business in Peru, preceded by corruption and inefficient government bureaucracy. Similarly, Global Integrity 2010 reports that tax laws are not always enforced uniformly or without discrimination, and some groups may consistently avoid paying taxes due to their connections. This environment of arbitrariness in tax regulations could create opportunities for corruption. In a similar vein, the US Department of State 2013 reports that foreign companies have complained about the inconsistent application of tax laws and the imposition of disproportionate fines by the National Superintendence of Tax Administration (SUNAT). The World Bank & IFC Enterprise Surveys 2010 reveals that relatively few of the surveyed companies expect to give gifts when meeting with tax inspectors.

Frequency

The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2013 :
- During the course of a year, a medium-sized company can expect to pay an average of 9 different taxes, which is far below the regional average of 30 taxes.

- A company should be prepared to spend 293 hours per year managing the administrative tasks related to these payments.

- The total tax rate is estimated to be 41% of profits, which is lower than the regional average of roughly 47%.

Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 :
- 3% of households who had contact with tax revenue services throughout 2010 report to have paid a bribe.

The World Bank & IFC: Enterprise Surveys 2010 :
- 8.4% of companies expect to give gifts in meetings with tax inspectors.

- 17.8% of companies identify tax rates and 20.2% of companies identify tax administration as being a major constraint to doing business.

Latinobarómetro: Annual Report 2008 (see English version) :
Citizens give the justification of tax evasion a score of 3.6 on a 10-point scale (1 'not at all justifiable' and 10 'totally justifiable').

Individual Corruption

According to Transparency International's Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 , less than a fifth of the surveyed Peruvian households point to the interaction with customs as an area where bribes are often demanded.

Business Corruption

Companies as well as individual citizens consider the Customs administration prone to corruption. According to the World Economic Forum Global Enabling Trade Report 2012 , time-consuming bureaucracy related to trade across borders creates conducive to conditions for bribe demands by public officials in Peru. For example, trade is impeded by customs procedures that lack efficiency, and exporting and importing require time-consuming paperwork to clear goods at the border. Corruption and bribery in these processes are not uncommon.

The Miller & Chevalier Latin America Corruption Survey 2012 shows that nearly half the surveyed business leaders believe the Peruvian customs agency to be significantly corrupt.

Political Corruption

Global Integrity 2010 reports that customs laws in Peru are not enforced uniformly or without discrimination. Furthermore, according to the US Department of State 2013 , Peru's tax and customs agency, the National Superintendence of Tax Administration , applies regulations and laws inconsistently, creating additional investment and trade barriers.

Frequency

World Economic Forum: Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013 :
- Business executives give the efficiency of customs procedures (formalities regulating the entry and exit of merchandise) in Peru a score of 4.1 on a 7-point scale (1 being 'extremely inefficient' and 7 'extremely efficient').

The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2013 :
- A standard export shipment of goods requires 6 documents and takes 12 days at an average cost of USD 890 per container.

- A standard import shipment of goods requires 8 documents and takes 17 days at an average cost of USD 880 per container.

Miller & Chevalier: Latin America Corruption Survey 2012 :
- 40% of the business leaders surveyed believe the customs agencies to be significantly corrupt.

World Economic Forum: The Global Enabling Trade Report 2012 :
- Business executives give the transparency of border administration (pervasiveness of undocumented extra payments or bribes connected with imports and exports) a score of 3.9 on a 7-point scale (1 'extremely non-transparent' and 7 'extremely transparent').

Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 :
- Almost 17% of households who had contact with the customs authorities throughout 2010 report having paid a bribe.

The World Bank & IFC: Enterprise Surveys 2010 :
- Less than 1% of companies surveyed expect to give gifts to get an import licence.

Business Corruption

Companies intending to operate in Peru should note that large-scale corruption in relation to public procurement is very common. According to the US Department of State 2011 , companies report that corruption exists in government procurement processes, and companies are generally recommended to use a specialised public procurement due diligence tool in order to mitigate the corruption risks associated with public procurement in Peru.

According to the law, major public procurements should be publicly advertised; however Global Integrity 2010 reports that this is often not the case in practice as the system is not efficient enough. Moreover, according to the same report, in practice companies guilty of major violations of procurement regulations, such as bribery, are not prohibited from participating in future procurement bids.

According to Freedom House 2011 , Peru has not yet sufficiently dealt with the linkages between collusion and corruption in government contracting. According to the report, corruption swallows up to 30% of the total amount spent on public procurement. On average, the number of bidders in procurement processes in Peru is very small, which facilitates corruption. A state procurement law signed in November 2008 appears to have shortened the public procurement process, while a software programme installed in 2009 allows government agencies to identify price differentials reported by different companies in the procurement process.

Read more about public procurement and contracting under 'Public Anti-Corruption Initiatives' in the Initiatives section.

Political Corruption

Despite a rather comprehensive regulatory framework concerning public contracting in Peru, corruption in this sector remains widespread, and many contracts are negotiated directly without a proper bidding process. It is common for public entities to re-classify contracts as 'urgent', thereby avoiding the usual tendering process. According to Transparency International 2011 , although Peru's legal framework conforms to APEC Standards there are still areas that could be improved. A couple of the main flaws are that the public has too much discretion and that they lack the necessary training. Another source of corruption is from the private sector, where large, incumbent firms are frequently awarded large, long-term contracts.

In early 2008, a congressional commission uncovered financial irregularities in the construction of toll booths by an Argentinean company on the main road to Lima's port, Callao. The commission suspects that the regional President of Callao, Alex Kouri, used public funds to pay the company at double price, thus making personal profits through kickbacks . According to a 2009 news article from IPS , Kouri was prosecuted for his acts.

The same article also reports that the former Vice President Luis Giampietri was accused of corruption during arms procurements in 1994 and 1995. Giampietri was allegedly misusing his power to favour arms deals to companies selected by former presidential security advisor, Vladimiro Montesino, who was found to have had millions of USD transferred to his accounts in Switzerland.

Read more about public procurement and contracting under 'Public Anti-Corruption Initiatives' in the Initiatives section.

Frequency

World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013 :
- Business executives give the diversion of public funds to companies, individuals, or groups due to corruption a score of 2.7 on a 7-point scale (1 'very common' and 7 'never occurs').

- Business executives give the favouritism of government officials when deciding upon policies and contracts a score of 2.9 on a 7-point scale (1 'always show favouritism' and 7 'never show favouritism').

The World Bank & IFC: Enterprise Surveys 2010 :
- 26.5% of companies surveyed expect to give gifts in order to secure a government contract.

- The value of a gift expected to secure a government contract is 1.62% of the contract value.

Miller & Chevalier: Latin America Corruption Survey 2008 :
- 82% of the surveyed companies report to have lost business due to corrupt practices by competitors.

Business Corruption

Global Integrity 2010 reports that government inspections to ensure public environmental standards are usually carried out in a uniform and even-handed manner; nevertheless, according to the report, these inspections are often reactive - they are not routine, but take place when there are problems. This environment could potentially fuel corruption, with bribes being paid in order to expedite the process.

Oil companies have experienced persistent opposition by Peru's National Indigenous Peoples' Organisation not to explore for oil in areas inhabited by Indigenous tribes. The President of Perupetro, who grants concessions to companies in the oil sector, has on several occasions caused outrage by questioning the existence of specific tribes. An oil boom in Peru has led to 70% of the Peruvian Amazon being opened up to exploration. Bribery and corruption reportedly occur frequently in connection with resource extraction concessions (logging, mining, and oil), particularly when these concessions are located on protected or Indigenous titled land.

Political Corruption

According to several sources such as the BBC and the International Herald Tribune , in October 2008, Minister of the Environment Antonio Brack was fired in connection with a recent oil concession scandal, which forced former President García's entire cabinet to resign. The scandal involves the Norwegian oil company Discover which is accused of having bribed officials in order to obtain five oil concessions, accusations which the company denies. According to news articles, the company has admitted to have made certain payments, but denies paying any bribes. A television station broadcasted a tape of a top state oil official and a lobbyist who were discussing and agreeing to favour the Norwegian oil company in a round of auctions for oil concessions. The taped conversation was allegedly between Alberto Quimper, an executive with the state petroleum agency, Perupetro, and a prominent lobbyist, Romulo Leon. Discover was subsequently granted several contracts for oil exploration in collaboration with the state petroleum company, Perupetro. The contracts have been suspended after the scandal was revealed.

Political protests have been successful in delaying several mining projects, according to US Department of State 2013 . In January 2012, a USD 4.8 billion Conga gold mine project in Cajamarca, the largest foreign investment project in Peru, was temporarily cancelled due to pressure from local citizens complaining that the mine would pollute their local water sources. The protests have resulted in at least three deaths and the government was forced to declare a state of emergency in the affected regions, according to a September 2012 BBC News article.

• Government Strategies : The collapse of the Fujimori administration amidst major corruption scandals raised awareness about the need for a long-term anti-corruption strategy. In February 2012, the Humala government introduced the National Plan to Combat Corruption and was evaluated by the Finance Ministry in August 2012. However, national anti-corruption efforts have usually been characterised by a high degree of inconsistency and a lack of a national anti-corruption policy. Several observers, including Global Integrity 2010 , claim that the existing agencies lack the autonomy needed to effectively monitor the activities of the government and its administration. An attempt to remedy this situation came as Peru entered - together with three other countries - the G8 Anti-Corruption and Transparency Initiative as a pilot country. According to the US Department of State 2012 , the initiative has helped the Peruvian government develop an action plan that includes activities in several areas: a) citizen information/internet connectivity, b) improving central government fiscal transparency, c) development of public procurement systems, d) improving regional/local government transparency and management, e) improvement of transparency of extractive industry revenues, and f) development of asset forfeiture systems and legislation. The initiative has started producing positive results with the formation of the Inter-American Organization of Government Procurement Institutions - which is led by Peru's State Procurement Agency. More recently, the Government of Peru participated in a pilot programme to test methodologies for UNCAC implementation review. The corresponding 2010 country report is the outcome of a peer review process and assesses the implementation of selected UNCAC articles. Participation in the programme and publication of the report was purely voluntary. A Peruvian Customs Service Programme was implemented in the early 1990s and consequently the performance of the Peruvian customs service has improved significantly. Prior to the reform, the Peruvian customs service was infamous for its corrupt practices and incompetent procedures. During the reform, Peruvian customs dismissed a large number of corrupt employees; introduced a qualifying examination; trained the remaining staf;, hired new, well-qualified personnel; laid down standard customs clearance times; simplified customs tariffs; and lowered the charge rates. This led to a doubling of import volume and a 353% increase in customs revenues, while charge rates were lowered and customs provisions remained otherwise the same. Staff numbers were reduced by about 30%, while the scope of tasks performed remained constant.

• Anti-Corruption Agencies : In 2000, the transition government created the National Anti-Corruption Initiative (INA) charged with studying the causes of corruption in Peru, preparing guidelines and developing an anti-corruption strategy. Based on INA recommendations, the National Anti-Corruption Commission was established in November 2001 with the objective of proposing a national policy for preventing and fighting corruption, and promoting ethics and transparency in public management. Among the initiatives put in place were an 'anti-corruption tsar', the establishment of a special anti-corruption police division, and the introduction of an anti-nepotism law for the public service. However, after attempting to investigate accusations of corruption in the Toledo administration, the 'tsar' had to resign in December 2004, and the Commission was informally deactivated. According to many observers, the failure to develop and implement a national action plan in the past has been the main factor behind the failure of the previous anti-corruption agencies. During the presidency of Alan García, the Ministry of Justice created the National Anti-Corruption Council , whose purpose was to continue the work of the Commission. However, the new anti-corruption council only served as a ghost-agency, as people were not aware of its existence and information about its goals and activities were kept in the dark. In October 2007, the executive branch decided to create the National Anti-Corruption Office (ONA), headed by attorney at law Carolina Lizárraga. The existence of the ONA was short-lived, however, and in 2008 it was formally deactivated. In February 2010, the government announced the creation of an Anti-Corruption Commission , which has been working with different institutions to design medium and long term policies. According to Global Integrity 2010 , the Anti-Corruption Commission is not protected from political interference in practice. According to the report, the influence of this office is highly determined by the political style of the prime minister. Similarly, appointments to the Peruvian anti-corruption agencies are sometimes based on political considerations, and individuals appointed may have clear party loyalties. All of ONA's functions have now been transferred to the Comptroller General's Office (see below).

• Comptroller General's Office : The Comptroller General (CGR, in Spanish) is appointed by the President for a seven-year term and must be approved by Congress. The CGR is the primary independent auditor in Peru's National Control System that oversees government funds. During the Fujimori era, the CGR reportedly functioned as a supporting mechanism for organised crime, instead of being a controlling entity. A majority of CGR's investigations were focused on those public officials who did not wish to take part in the underhanded objectives of the regime. Today, it is still in the process of re-establishing itself after the rampant corruption of the Fujimori years, and recent initiatives show a willingness to strengthen the CGR as an effective organ. In late 2004, the CGR obtained a USD 12 million loan from the Inter-American Development Bank in order to strengthen its competence, decentralise the National Control System and improve technology and training of staff, as reported in IDB Group News . However, the CGR is still said to lack sanctioning power and full autonomy from the executive branch, and poor availability of data from Peru's approximately 1,500 public entities makes annual auditing difficult. Freedom House 2011 reports that even though the comptroller's office is legally, although not constitutionally, autonomous and is responsible for scrutinising everything from government procurement to asset-declaration forms, it lacks sanctioning power and relies instead on units concerned with taking action when improprieties are found. The same report points out that the CGR is nevertheless able to uncover many corruption cases. The CGR has been active in addressing corruption by launching the Anti-Corruption Preventive Strategy (EPA), which aims at preventing corruption between public and private actors and institutions. The EPA consists of two programmes: 1) the Dissemination Programme for the Prevention of Corruption, which seeks to integrate information of anti-corruption in secondary education, and 2) the Fair Play Programme, intended to promote inter-institutional cooperation and prevent corruption in the interaction between public and private institutions. However, there are no reports available that assess the impact and effectiveness of these programmes. According to Global Integrity 2010 , appointments to the CGR usually support its independence and tend to be based on professional criteria. Nevertheless, at the same time, the CGR's audit reports are sometimes ignored or only given superficial attention by the government. In August 2011, the comptroller general reported to Congress that 10,659 public officials were involved in irregularities between January 2009 and July 2011, with 2,447 of these cases involving penal or civil infractions, according to the US Department of State 2011 .

• Ombudsman , or Defensoría del Pueblo (in Spanish): Defensoría del Pueblo is in charge of supervising the fulfilment of the obligations of the state administration. According to Global Integrity 2010 , the Ombudsman is a legally independent institution, protected from political interference and this is mostly upheld in practice as well. Moreover, according to the report, the appointments are usually made based on professional criteria, and appointed individuals do not have clear political party affiliations. The agency has a professional full-time staff. The Ombudsman publishes annual reports; however, the government is not obliged to follow its recommendations. According to Global Integrity 2010, the government generally acts on the Ombudsman's recommendations. The Bertelsmann Foundation 2012 praises the Ombudsman's Office for its professionalism, excellent work and as a body that is free from influence of both politicians and powerful groups or individuals.

• Anti-Corruption Directorate (DIRCOCOR, in Spanish): The DIRCOCOR is a special unit created in 2002 under the National Police Force of Peru (PNP, in Spanish). The main objective of the DIRCOCOR is to support the judiciary, the Comptroller General's Office and other state organisms with technical police investigations of suspected corruption by public officials. The DIRCOCOR has carried out several investigations since its foundation.

• Special Fund for Administration of Illegally Obtained Money from the State (FEDADOI): According to a 2009 working paper by Basel Institute on Governance, the FEDADOI is a fund that was established in 2001 with the purpose of administering returned assets that had been misappropriated during Fujimori's years in office. The fund supports public anti-corruption initiatives in Peru and has been managed by five appointed members. According to the 2009 working paper, there is a lack of information to assess the effectiveness of the FEDADOI.

• Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative Peru (EITI): Being the world's sixth-largest producer of gold and copper and second largest producer of silver, the Government of Peru, through the Ministry of Energy and Mines, has subscribed to the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative and appointed an EITI coordinator. EITI is an international strategic alliance between governments, private companies, civil society groups and international organisations with the objective of publicising and accounting for revenues and expenses that come from extractive industries, such as oil, mining and other natural resource industries. Additionally, EITI implementation in Peru involves local government and regional projects aimed at accounting for revenue management in the provinces of Cusco and Cajamarca, which are the main regions that produce natural gas and host mining activities. After the government published an Executive Decree that approved an EITI Action Plan and Working Group in 2006, Peru was admitted as a candidate country by the EITI board in 2007. In February 2010, Peru applied to extend their deadline for completing EITI validation. In February 2012, the EITI Board designated Peru as an EITI compliant country.

• E-Governance : According to the US Department of State 2012 , efforts are underway to provide Internet connections to approximately 90 municipal governments located in areas most affected by terrorism and poverty in Peru. The project will allow these governments access to national systems, part of the Peruvian government's e-governance initiatives, aimed at creating greater transparency and citizen access to public information. Also, the government has created an Electronic System of Procurement and Contracting for Peru (SEACE, in Spanish). See also the Portal of the State of Peru (in Spanish); a website containing links to government institutions, information about the country, and electronic services for individuals as well as companies, incl. guide and links to important permits and licences.

• Public Procurement : By law, major procurements require competitive bidding and strict formal requirements limit the extent of sole sourcing. Unsuccessful bidders can instigate an official review of procurement decisions, but they cannot challenge the concrete procurement decision in court. The Supervisory Organism for State Contracting (OSCE, in Spanish) is the supervisory and problem-solving institution for public procurement and contracting in Peru. Public contracting is in principle an open process, and includes the obligation of public entities to publish and communicate their annual contracting plans. According to the law, major public procurements should be publicly advertised; however Global Integrity 2010 reports that this is often not the case in practice as the system is not efficient enough. Similarly, Freedom House 2011 reports that Peru does not yet deal sufficiently with the linkages between collusion and corruption in government contracting. A new state procurement law signed in November 2008 appears to be have shortened the public procurement process, while a software programme installed in 2009 allows government agencies to identify price differentials reported by different companies in the procurement process. The Peruvian government has adopted electronic government contracting and created an Electronic System of Procurement and Contracting for Peru (SEACE, in Spanish) through a modification of Law No. 26850 on State Procurement and Contracting. The new law specifies those bodies that fall under its jurisdiction, broadens the list of grounds for disqualification from state contracts, and clarifies which supply contracts qualify as 'urgent' and can therefore bypass the formal tender procedure. According to Global Integrity 2010, companies guilty of major violations of procurement regulations, such as bribery, are not prohibited from participating in future procurement bids in practice. A private investment agency, ProInversion, is in charge of granting public works concessions in infrastructure and public services. Under the Law on Transparency and Access to Public Information (in Spanish), contract drafts with specifications of requirements are published on the ProInversion website . Companies who wish to be suppliers to the state can sign up at the National Register of Suppliers (in Spanish).

• Whistle-Blowing : In May 2010, Peru passed a limited package of anti-corruption legislation, including the Law on Whistleblower Protection . This law provides protection from dismissal or reprimands for whistleblowers, confidentiality in reporting acts of corruption, and compensation for the whistleblower, according to Freedom House 2011 . As reported by Global Integrity 2010 , civil servants who report cases of corruption are protected from recrimination or other negative consequences by law. Nevertheless, as assessed by the report, the enforcement of the law in practice is not always effective and public sector whistle-blowers may still be punished either through official or unofficial means. There are no specific laws protecting whistle-blowers in the private sector. The Comptroller General's office has a complaint mechanism (in Spanish), on its website where citizens can report corruption committed by public officials. The Inspector General under the National Police Force (PNP) also has a complaint mechanism (in Spanish) to which citizens can report criminal offences and corruption committed by the police.

• General Comments on the Public Anti-Corruption Initiatives : Both the Toledo and García governments stated the fight against corruption to be a priority; however, in practice, anti-corruption initiatives have focused on crimes committed during Fujimori's presidency. Prosecution of high-level members of the political elite, high-ranking military commanders, businesspeople and media owners, like those now being prosecuted for crimes committed under the Fujimori regime, is unprecedented in Peru. Another major problem has been the structural difficulties associated with establishment of functioning reflected in the formation and dissolution of a number of such agencies since 2000. These structural problems could be seen as indications of a certain unwillingness on the government's part to actively combat corruption. Nevertheless, Proética, Peru's leading transparency NGO praised the government's progress in fighting corruption in 2012.

• Media : Freedom of press is provided by the constitution and it is generally respected, according to the US Department of State 2011 . Privately-run broadcasters and newspapers dominate the media scene, with the state-run media having relatively small audiences. According to Freedom House 2012 , low salaries leave reporters susceptible to bribery. Cases of journalists accepting bribes in exchange for reporting negative or favourable coverage are not unusual, which has contributed to a general lack of credibility of the media in Peru. Although murders of journalists are reportedly rare today, three were killed in 2011, Human Rights Watch 2012 and Reporters Without Borders 2010 support claims by Freedom House 2012, stating that journalists reporting negative coverage are commonly subject to intimidation and assault by private actors, civil servants, police officers, union representatives or even elected officials. In the past, such crimes often went unpunished. However, the Peruvian courts made some progress in 2005-2006 towards solving past injustices against journalists. The decriminalisation of press offenses is a major outstanding issue that needs to be addressed by the Peruvian government, according to Reporters Without Borders 2012 . Corruption, drug-trafficking and the activities of the Shining Path guerrillas are perceived to be among the 'most dangerous' subjects for journalists. However, in Transparency International's Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 , the media in Peru are perceived as less prone to corruption than the country's public institutions, as citizens give the media a score of 2.9 on a 5-point scale (1 'not at all corrupt' and 5 'extremely corrupt'). Freedom House 2012 ranks Peru 91th out of 197 countries and describes its press environment as 'partly free', while Reporters Without Borders 2011-2012 ranks Peru 115th out of 179 countries.

• Civil Society : The constitution provides for the right of peaceful assembly and freedom of association; according to the US Department of State 2011 , those freedoms are generally respected. The former administration of President García has criticised NGOs for hindering economic development and for a perceived lack of transparency. In this regard, Congress passed a law on NGOs in November 2006. According to the Bertelsmann Foundation 2012 , the law requires NGOs to register and they are subjected to extensive government control. Any NGOs that cause a public disorder or damage private or public property, according to the government definition of such disturbances, will receive penalties such as revoking their licences. However, in September 2007, after massive protests by local and international NGOs, the Constitutional Court struck down sections of the law's more controversial clauses.

• Proética (in Spanish) is the local Peruvian chapter of Transparency International. It was established in 2001 and consists of four civil society organisations: the Comisión Andina de Juristas (CAJ, in Spanish), the Asociación Civil Transparencia (in Spanish), the Instituto Prensa y Sociedad (Ipys, in Spanish) and the Asociación de Exportadores (ADEX), arranged in a consortium aimed at containing and preventing corruption in the country. Proética promotes citizen participation, public sector transparency and integrity, policy dialogue and business ethics. It focuses on five strategic areas: oversight of the use of public resources (including procurement), prevention and awareness, quantitative and qualitative measurement of corruption, dissemination and documentation, and working with local and regional governments. With support from the Swedish aid agency SIDA , Proética is working on designing anti-corruption plans for three regions in cooperation with local and regional activists. Eventually, Proética hopes to exert influence on the formation and implementation of the national anti-corruption policy. Proética has conducted a successful campaign to monitor a public procurement tender for police uniforms. The project was complex, but the monitoring resulted in savings of over USD 3 million to the Peruvian government. The results of the monitoring were widely disseminated, and the success helped Proética expand this type of activity into other government agencies, and to local and regional levels. See the section on public procurement under 'Public Anti-Corruption Initiatives' in the Initiatives section for more information about the work of Proética or visit their website.

• Ciudadanos al Día (CAD, in Spanish): CAD is a Peruvian non-profit organisation that works to improve the citizen-state relationship at all levels of government office by introducing interventions which lead to a state that is more transparent, efficient and equitable, and to a citizenry that is more informed, demanding and engaged. CAD specialises in the use of competition to generate positive social outcomes such as better governance, improved compliance with the rule of law, and reduced corruption.

The websites listed below provide useful facts on Peru as well as contacts and tools for companies operating in Peru:

• International Finance Corporation: Peru SME Toolkit (in Spanish) and Latin America & the Caribbean SME Toolkit (in Spanish)
  Guide to sustainable business management practices for SMEs.
• CIA World Factbook: Peru Profile
• World Bank: Peru Data Profile

Sources for further reading:

• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Peru 2013 .
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Peru 2013 .
• Proética: National Survey on Corrupción 2012 (in Spanish).
• The Bertelsmann Foundation: Transformation Index - Peru 2012 .
• US Department of State: Human Rights Report - Peru 2012 .
• Freedom House: Countries at the Crossroads - Peru 2011 .
• Global Integrity: Peru Country Report 2010 .

UNCAC Status: Signed 10 December 2003. Ratified 16 October 2004.

Status on UNCAC Implementation
This field describes the country's status on the United Nations Convention against Corruption. Please note any declarations and reservations made upon ratification. The list of signatories can be found on the UNODC website . Read more about the UNCAC . The Government of Peru participated in a pilot programme to test methodologies for UNCAC implementation review. The corresponding Peru UNCAC Pilot Review Programme Implementation Report 2010 is the outcome of a peer review process and assesses the implementation of selected UNCAC articles. Participation in the programme and publication of the report was purely voluntary.

Other Relevant Conventions or Treaties:

• Inter-American Convention Against Corruption: Ratified June 1997.
  Read Transparency International's summary and assessment of the convention .
• United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime: Signed 14 December 2000. Ratified 23 January 2003.
  Read Transparency International's summary and assessment of the convention .

Transparency CPI: 2012: 83/176 (Score: 38)

Transparency CPI
This field consists of the score for the country in question on the Corruption Perceptions Index from Transparency International as well as its ranking.

World Bank CORR Index (-2.5 - +2.5): 2012: -0.4

World Bank Corruption Index
This field consists of the score for the country in question on the 'Control of Corruption' indicator in the Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI): 1996-2012 .

OECD Country Risk Classification (0-7): 2013: 3

Country Risk Classification
The classification of countries by risk category has the aim of providing OECD countries with a basis for calculating the premium interest rate to be charged to cover the risk of non-repayment of export credits. Countries are placed in risk categories 0 - 7, with 0 being the lowest risk category and thus the least expensive. Conversely, premium group 7 is the highest risk category. Each classification is comprised of 2 components: 1) an assessment of the country's economic/financial situation, and 2) its overall political stability. Access the complete list of OECD Country Risk Classification figures .

Data Verification:

Publication Date: February 2013

Data verified by: GAN Integrity Solutions

	Relevant Organisations
Proética - Consejo Nacional Para La Ética Pública (in Spanish)	Manco Cápac 826 Miraflores Lima 18 Tel: +51 1 446 8581/8941/8943 Fax: +51 1 446 8581 E-mail: LOADEMAIL[proetica]DOMAIN[proetica.org.pe]	National chapter of Transparency International.
CAD - Ciudadanos al Día	Av. Alberto Alexander 2523 (ex Nicaragua) Lince Tel: +51 440 2787/2788 Fax: +51 422-8541	NGO.
ProInversion	Paseo de la República 3361 Piso 9 San Isidro Lima Tel: +51 1 612 1200 Fax: +51 1 221 2941/2942 E-mail: LOADEMAIL[contact]DOMAIN[proinversion.gob.pe] Pasaje Belén 113- Vallecito Arequipa Tel: +51 054 608 114 Fax: +51 054 608 115 Av. Chirichigno Mz. A - Lote 2, A Urb. San Eduardo Piura Tel: +51 073 310 081 Fax: +51 073 309 148 / 305 082	Private investment agency and one-stop shop.
Lima Chamber of Commerce	Av. Guiseppe Garibaldi 396 Jesús María Lima 11 Tel: +51 1 463 3434 Fax: +51 1 463 3434 ext. 674 E-mail: LOADEMAIL[info]DOMAIN[camaralima.org.pe] / LOADEMAIL[webmaster]DOMAIN[camaralima.org.pe]	Among its services to member companies, the Lima Chamber of Commerce provides arbitration in commercial disputes.
American Chamber of Commerce of Peru	Av. Victor Andrés Belaunde 157, Piso 1 San Isidro Lima 27 Tel: +51 1 705 8000 E-mail: LOADEMAIL[amcham]DOMAIN[amcham.org.pe]	The American Chamber of Commerce runs an arbitration centre.
	Partner Embassies
Consulate General of Denmark	Real Consulado General de Dinamarca Bernardo Monteagudo 201 San Isidro Lima 27 Tel: +51 1 264 4040/3620/3611 Fax: +51 1 264 4050/3080 E-mail: LOADEMAIL[joseantonioolaechea]DOMAIN[esola.com.pe]	Consulate general.
Honorary Consulate General of Sweden (Peru is covered by the Swedish Embassy in Chile)	La Santa María 130 San Isidro Lima 27 Tel: +51 1 442 8905 Fax: +51 1 421 3295 E-mail: LOADEMAIL[konslima]DOMAIN[speedy.com.pe]	Honorary consulate.
Embassy of Norway (Peru is covered by the Norwegian Embassy in Chile)	San Sebastián 2839, Of. 509 Las Condes Casilla 2431 Santiago Tel: +56 02 234 2888 Fax: +56 02 234 2201 E-mail: LOADEMAIL[emb.santiago]DOMAIN[mfa.no]	Embassy.
British Embassy	Torre Parque Mar Piso 22/F Avenida Jose Larco, 1301 Miraflores Lima Tel: +51 1 617 3000 Fax: +51 1 617 3100 E-mail: LOADEMAIL[belima]DOMAIN[fco.gov.uk] / LOADEMAIL[consular.lima]DOMAIN[fco.gov.uk]	Embassy.
Embassy of Austria	Edificio "De las Naciones" Avenida Republica de Colombia/ex Avenida Central 643, Piso 5 San Isidro Lima 27 Tel: +51 1 442 0503/1807/0343 Fax: +51 1 442 8851 E-mail: LOADEMAIL[lima-ob]DOMAIN[bmeia.gv.at]	Embassy.

General Information Sources

• The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2013 .
• World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013 .
• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Peru 2012 .
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Peru 2012 .
• Proética: National Survey on Corrupción 2012 (in Spanish).
• The Bertelsmann Foundation: Transformation Index - Peru 2012 .
• Freedom House: Countries at the Crossroads - Peru 2011 .
• US Department of State: Human Rights Report - Peru 2011 .
• Global Integrity: Peru Country Report 2010 .
• Global Post: 'Omar Chehade, Peru VP, steps down amid corruption charges', 18 January 2012.
• MercoPress: 'Peruvian Vice-President suspended from Congress over corruption allegations', 15 November 2011.
• MercoPress: 'Calls for Peruvian vice-president to resign on allegation of corruption', 8 November 2011.
• The Wall Street Journal: 'Peru's new leadership faces first corruption test', 2 November 2011.
• The New York Times: 'Peru leader ousts 30 police generals in anti-corruption drive', 10 October 2011.
• Ipsos Apoyo, Opinión y Mercado: Opinión Data: Resumen de Encuestas a la opinión pública, October 2011 (in Spanish).
• Freedom House: Countries at the Crossroads - Peru 2011 .
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Peru 2011 .
• Associated Press: 'Leftist Humala narrowly wins Peru election', 6 June 2011.
• Guardian: 'Ollanta Humala's win is a promise to Peru's poor', 6 June 2011.
• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Peru 2011 .
• Human Rights Watch: World Report Peru 2011 .
• Global Integrity: Peru Country Report 2010 .
• Proética: Sexta Encuesta Nacional de Corrupción 2008 (in Spanish).
• US Department of State: Human Rights Report - Peru 2010 .
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010 .
• The Bertelsmann Foundation: Transformation Index - Peru 2010 .
• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Peru 2009 .
• Ipsos Apoyo, Opinión y Mercado: Opinión Data: Resumen de Encuestas a la opinión pública, May 2009 (in Spanish).
• BBC News:'Fujimore Sentenced for corruption', 30 September 2009.
• Compañia Peruana de Estudios de Mercado y Opinón Pública (CPI): Programa de Estudios de Medios CPI 2008 (in Spanish).
• Miller & Chevalier: Latin America Corruption Survey 2008 .
• US Department of State: Background Note: Peru 2008 .
• Agencia Informativa Latinoamericano: 'Gobierno peruano pretende poner fin a escándolo de corrupción', 15 November 2008.
• Agencia Informativa Latinoamericano: 'Corrupción asoma como principal desafío de nuevo primer ministro en Perú', 13 October 2008.
• BBC News: 'Protesters decry Peru corruption', 8 October 2008.
• BBC News: 'Oil contract scandal shakes Peru', 7 October 2008.
• International Herald Tribune: 'Peru's cabinet offers to resign over scandal', 9 October 2008.
• El Comercio: 'Corrupción desplaza al desempleo como pricipalproblema del país', 20 April 2008.
• Latinobarómetro: Annual Report 2007 (see English version).
• Breibart: 'Ex-Peruvian President Fujimori Sentenced to 6 Years in Prison', 12 December 2007.
• The Irish Times: 'Former Peruvian President on Trial for Massacres', 11 December 2007.
• The International Herald Tribune: 'Ex-President Sent Home to Peru to Face Human Rights Charges', 24 September 2007.
• Christian Science Monitor: 'Still Wanted in Peru, Alberto Fujimori Runs for Office in Japan', 25 July 2007.

Corruption Levels Sources

Judicial System

• The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2013 .
• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Peru 2013 .
• World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013 .
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Peru 2012 .
• Proética: National Survey on Corrupción 2012 (in Spanish).
• The Bertelsmann Foundation: Transformation Index - Peru 2012 .
• Latinobarómetro: Annual Report 2012 (see English version).
• Miller & Chevalier: Latin America Corruption Survey 2012 .
• Freedom House: Countries at the Crossroads - Peru 2011 .
• US Department of State: Human Rights Report - Peru 2011 .
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 .
• Peruvian Times: 'Judicial commission suspends competition following corruption allegations', 23 February 2010.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010 .
• Proética: Quinta Encuesta Nacional de Corrupción 2008 (in Spanish).
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Report 2007 .

Police

• The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2013 .
• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Peru 2012 .
• World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013 .
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Peru 2012 .
• Proética: National Survey on Corrupción 2012 (in Spanish).
• The Bertelsmann Foundation: Transformation Index - Peru 2012 .
• Latinobarómetro: Annual Report 2012 (see English version).
• Miller & Chevalier: Latin America Corruption Survey 2012 .
• Freedom House: Countries at the Crossroads - Peru 2011 .
• US Department of State: Human Rights Report - Peru 2011 .
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 .
• The New York Times: 'Peru leader ousts 30 police generals in anti-corruption drive', 10 October 2011.
• Global Integrity: Peru Country Report 2010 .
• Peruvian Times: 'Ombudsman’s Office recommends new law to improve quality of police force', 9 May 2009.
• Proética: Quinta Encuesta Nacional de Corrupción 2008 (in Spanish).
• Latinobarómetro: Annual Report 2008 (see English version).

Licences, Infrastructure and Public Utilities

• The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2013 .
• World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013 .
• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Peru 2012 .
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Peru 2012 .
• Proética: National Survey on Corrupción 2012 (in Spanish).
• The Bertelsmann Foundation: Transformation Index - Peru 2012 .
• Latinobarómetro: Annual Report 2012 (see English version).
• Miller & Chevalier: Latin America Corruption Survey 2012 .
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 .
• MercoPress: 'Peruvian Vice-President suspended from Congress over corruption allegations', 15 November 2011.
• MercoPress: 'Calls for Peruvian vice-president to resign on allegation of corruption', 8 November 2011.
• The Wall Street Journal: 'Peru's new leadership faces first corruption test', 2 November 2011.
• Freedom House: Countries at the Crossroads - Peru 2011 .
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Peru 2011 .
• Global Integrity: Peru Country Report 2010 .
• Peruvian Times: 'Head of Peru’s main water utility resigns over corruption allegations', 12 February 2010.
• Latinobarómetro: Annual Report 2008 (see English version).

Land Administration

• The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2013 .
• World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013 .
• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Peru 2012 .
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Peru 2012 .
• Proética: National Survey on Corrupción 2012 (in Spanish).
• The Bertelsmann Foundation: Transformation Index - Peru 2012 .
• Latinobarómetro: Annual Report 2012 (see English version).
• Miller & Chevalier: Latin America Corruption Survey 2012 .
• Freedom House: Countries at the Crossroads - Peru 2011 .
• US Department of State: Human Rights Report - Peru 2011 .
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 .
• Global Integrity: Peru Country Report 2010 .

Tax Administration

• The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2013 .
• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Peru 2013 .
• World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013 .
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Peru 2012 .
• Proética: National Survey on Corrupción 2012 (in Spanish).
• The Bertelsmann Foundation: Transformation Index - Peru 2012 .
• Latinobarómetro: Annual Report 2012 (see English version).
• Miller & Chevalier: Latin America Corruption Survey 2012 .
• Freedom House: Countries at the Crossroads - Peru 2011 .
• US Department of State: Human Rights Report - Peru 2011 .
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 .
• Global Integrity: Peru Country Report 2010 .
• Latinobarómetro: Annual Report 2008 (see English version).

Customs Administration

• The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2013 .
• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Peru 2013 .
• World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013 .
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Peru 2012 .
• Proética: National Survey on Corrupción 2012 (in Spanish).
• The Bertelsmann Foundation: Transformation Index - Peru 2012 .
• Latinobarómetro: Annual Report 2012 (see English version).
• Miller & Chevalier: Latin America Corruption Survey 2012 .
• Freedom House: Countries at the Crossroads - Peru 2011 .
• US Department of State: Human Rights Report - Peru 2011 .
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 .
• Global Integrity: Peru Country Report 2010 .

Public Procurement and Contracting

• The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2013 .
• World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013 .
• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Peru 2012 .
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Peru 2012 .
• Proética: National Survey on Corrupción 2012 (in Spanish).
• The Bertelsmann Foundation: Transformation Index - Peru 2012 .
• Miller & Chevalier: Latin America Corruption Survey 2012 .
• Freedom House: Countries at the Crossroads - Peru 2011 .
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 .
• Global Integrity: Peru Country Report 2010 .
• IPS: 'Vice President Accused of Corruption', 13 November 2009.
• Miller & Chevalier: Latin America Corruption Survey 2008 .
• Scoop News: 'Oil Industry Told To Keep Off Uncontacted Tribes Land', 6 July 2007.

Environment, Natural Resources and Extractive Industry

• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Peru 2013 .
• Freedom House: Countries at the Crossroads - Peru 2011 .
• Global Integrity: Peru Country Report 2010 .
• Agencia Informativa Latinoamericano: 'Gobierno peruano pretende poner fin a escándolo de corrupción', 15 November 2008.
• Agencia Informativa Latinoamericano: 'Corrupción asoma como principal desafío de nuevo primer ministro en Perú', 13 October 2008.
• BBC News: 'Protesters decry Peru corruption', 8 October 2008.
• BBC News: 'Oil contract scandal shakes Peru', 7 October 2008.
• International Herald Tribune: 'Peru's cabinet offers to resign over scandal', 9 October 2008.
• El Comercio: 'Corrupción desplaza al desempleo como pricipal problema del país', 20 April 2008.
• BBC News: Peru Country Profile.

Public Anti-Corruption Initiatives Sources

• MercoPress: 'Peruvian Vice-President suspended from Congress over corruption allegations', 15 November 2011.
• MercoPress: 'Calls for Peruvian vice-president to resign on allegation of corruption', 8 November 2011.
• The Wall Street Journal: 'Peru's new leadership faces first corruption test', 2 November 2011.
• Freedom House: Countries at the Crossroads - Peru 2011 .
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Peru 2011 .
• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Peru 2011 .
• Global Integrity: Peru Country Report 2010 .
• US Department of State: Human Rights Report - Peru 2010 .
• UNODC: Peru UNCAC Pilot Review Programme Implementation Report 2010 .
• Peruvian Times: 'Peru government announces creation of anti-corruption commission', 2 February 2010.
• Basel Institute on Governance: Managing Proceeds of Asset Recovery: The case of Nigeria, Peru, the Philippines and Kazakhstan, Working Paper Series October 2009 .
• Human Rights Watch: World Report Peru 2008 .
• El Comercio: 'La ONA anunció un plan nacional contra la corrupción para el 2008', 30 January 2008.
• BBC News: Peru Country Profile.

Private Anti-Corruption Initiatives Sources

• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Peru 2012 .
• Proética: National Survey on Corrupción 2012 (in Spanish).
• The Bertelsmann Foundation: Transformation Index - Peru 2012 .
• Latinobarómetro: Annual Report 2012 (see English version).
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Peru 2012 .
• Freedom House: Countries at the Crossroads - Peru 2011 .
• US Department of State: Human Rights Report - Peru 2011 .
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010/2011 .
• Global Integrity: Peru Country Report 2010 .
• Human Rights Watch: World Report Peru 2011 .
• US Department of State: Human Rights Report - Peru 2010 .
• Reporters Without Borders: Peru Country Report 2010 .
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010 .
• Freedom House: Freedom of the Press Index 2010 .
• The Bertelsmann Foundation: Transformation Index - Peru 2010 .